We strongly encourage packing and using wound closure strips instead, which are cleaner and less time consuming. We also emphasize that it's never wise to close a gash longer than half an inch. Doing so just begs for an infection.

 General Relief From a Bite or Sting:

•  Use a cold/ice pack and apply it to the afflicted area to reduce immediate swelling.

• Apply a pain relieving cream (i.e. calamine lotion, ozonol, etc.) or a baking soda paste to the bite or sting.  

• Try rubbing some aloe vera lotion or gel to the affected area surrounding the bite or sting.

For all bites and stings, do the following:

• Use a cold/ice pack and apply it to the afflicted area to reduce immediate swelling.
• Apply a pain relieving cream (i.e. calamine lotion, ozonol, etc.) to the bite or sting.
• Try rubbing some aloe vera lotion or gel to the affected area surrounding the bite or sting.
• Seek out medical attention immediately if you experience a severe allergic reaction.

Any of the following allergic reactions require the immediate attention of a physician:

• Skin around the bite or sting is red, hot, painful, or swollen indicating a possible infection.
• Swelling around or of the eyes, lips, or throat
• Visible hives (red, itchy, spots)
• Dizziness, lightheadedness or confusion
• Wheezing
• Breathing difficulties
• Abdominal cramping or nausea/vomiting
• Fainting or loss of consciousness
• Irregular heartbeat
• Headache

Last but not least, use these precautionary tips and you just might avoid being bitten or stung altogether:

• Ask the local inhabitants about the local venomous or harmful anthropods.

• Hang clothes up instead of lying on the floor of your tent or other dwelling.

• Make a habit of checking latrines, bedding, shoes, clothing, before use.
• Apply insect repellent every few hours when in insect or spider-infested areas.
• Skin-So-Soft bath oils (by Avon) are excellent  for repelling insects.
• Be sure to wash off insect repellent when returning indoors again.
• Avoid the outdoors during the dusk hours this is when mosquitoes are most prevalent.
• Burn the anti-mosquito candles or coils when outdoors in the evening.
• Do not wear perfume, aftershave, cologne, or any scented skin or hair products when outside. The sweet scents will attract insects.
• Wear white or any light-colored clothing to avoid bee stings (avoid yellows and reds as they attract insects).
• Avoid wearing flower-printed patterns, as bees are usually attracted to these types of patterns and colors.
• Wear shoes or sandals when walking through grassy or wooded areas to avoid being stung by insects or spiders.
• Wear socks when possible and pull them up to cover more of your lower legs.
• Wear gloves and tuck pants into socks when working in places where spiders may be lurking.

Arachnid (Spider) Treatment
If you are bitten by either of the following arachnids, consult a physician immediately! These are the most common dangerous spiders:

• Black Widow. Identified by the shiny black body and a red hourglass or red marking on the abdomen.

• Brown Recluse. Identified as a small light brown spider with a dark brown violin on the head/back.

Scorpion Treatment
The most dangerous scorpions in the U.S. are found in Arizona and small potions of New Mexico. Other dangerous scorpions are found in Mexico, Central America, South America, the Mediterranean region, North Africa, South Africa, and India.

Treatment:

• Do not give morphine, morphine derivatives, or Demerol.

• Use ice packs or cold compresses to relieve the pain and slow the spread of venom. Avoid freezing the skin.

• Consult a physician immediately unless specific knowledge of the scorpion is known.

• In the case of more marked symptoms, medical treatment must be given as quickly as possible. There is antiserum for scorpion venom. Treatment must be overseen by a doctor.

Centipede and Millipede Treatment
Centipede bites are painful but not life-threatening. Millipedes secrete a toxin which causes burning and itching, but is also not life-threatening.

Treatment:

• Wash the skin thoroughly.

• Follow general relief steps below and watch for allergic reactions.

• Consult a physician immediately.

• First try pulling the stinger out with your fingers - this is generally the quickest method. If you are not able to remove it with your fingers, as quickly as possible use either tweezers, or a stiff, flat object, such as a credit card, and pull or scrape out the stinger.
   
• As long as you aren't showing any signs of an allergic reaction (see symptoms under Insect Bites and Stings section), wash the area gently with soap and water, if available. If you are not near soap and water, see if someone has a first aid kit. If so you can use an alcohol swab to sterilize the sting area.
   
• Now add a cold compresses to the area to reduce the swelling. Either a washcloth run under cold water, or a baggie full of ice will work for a compress. If pain subsists, use a pain reliever such as aspirin, ibuprofen (Advil), or acetaminophen (Tylenol). Take an oral antihistamine (like Benadryl) to alleviate itching and inflammation.

Not all ticks are dangerous but the known carriers of Lyme disease are Deer ticks, which aptly named, are often found on deer. Hunters must be particularly careful to check the carcass. Ticks can also be found in your own back yard, near wood piles, stone fences, or any place that rodents might nest.

Naturally you will need to remove a tick if you find one on yourself. A tick will bury it's head under your skin in order to drink blood so it is very important to remove the head as well as the body. The head, if left under the skin, will cause an infection. You also must be sure that you get it out alive. An injured or dying tick will regurgitate your blood back into your blood system - along with all of the bacteria and germs the tick was carrying.

Remember those guidelines as you continue following these directions:

• Do not panic. This is not a life threatening situation at this point, but if you panic it could be.

• Make sure you have easy access to the spot in which the tick is located. If need be, have someone help you hold hair out of the way, or fashion something to hold hair out of the way for you. You must have a clear view of what you are doing.

•  Use tweezers to remove the tick. Sterilze the tweezers by using rubbing alcohol or running them through a flame several times. If using the flame method make sure they are cool before using them for tick removal.

• If you have no access to tweezers, it is best to use a paper towel, napkin or tissue. Do not grab the tick with your bare hands!

• While grasping the tick as close to the head as you can get, start pulling back away from your skin, but be gentle. The object here is to get the tick to let go, on it's own.

• Do not squeeze the tick, just use enough pressure to hold onto it. Keep a steady pressure on the tick, and if need be jiggle it slightly.

• Do not rotate the tick or you will separate the head from the body. You may have to keep the pressure up for 30 seconds to a minute or two, in order to convince the tick it no longer wishes to be attached to your skin.

• Last resort: If after several minutes the tick still will not let go, drop a small drop of rubbing alcohol on the tick. Repeat this step once a minute for up to 10 minutes. But be careful, using too much alcohol can sometimes cause the tick to regurgitate.

Once the tick has been removed, make sure that you have the head. If not, we would recommend you see a doctor at this point.

Assuming the head and body are in tact, we also recommend the following actions:

• Do not dispose of the tick. Place it in a ziplock baggy or other sealed container so that it can be checked for Lyme Disease.

• Treat the removal area with a disinfectant, and keep it clean and dry.

• Write the date of the bite on your calendar. If you have contracted Lyme Disease a rash will appear any time within 24 hours upto one month from the time you were bitten. The rash will have a bulls-eye, and along with the rash, you may get flu like symptoms, a headache, muscle aches, loss of appetite, fever and fatigue. It is important that you tell your doctor that you were bitten (and the date) since many doctors have never seen Lyme Disease.

If Lyme disease is treated early with antibiotics there are generally no lasting problems, if untreated it can cause permanent nervous system damage and in some cases even death. Early symptoms include: fatigue, headache, fever, chills, muscle pains, and joint aches. If you remove the tick within the first 36 hours, your odds of contracting Lyme disease are slim (less than 4%).

Finally, here are a few measures you can take that might prevent you from being bitten in the first place:

• Wear light colored clothing with long pants and long sleeves. The light colored clothing will contrast to the dark color of the tick making them easy to spot.

• If at all possible wear boots and tuck your pant legs into your boots.

• Also before you leave the area, check yourself and even your pets for any ticks.

• Carry tweezers or a knife that has a set of tweezers enclosed every time you go out. It also would not hurt to carry a small ziplock bag.

• There are several commercial tick repellents on the market. There are clothing treatments that seem to be quite effective in killing ticks. You apply this to your clothing and it will even last through several washings. Also there are some insect repellants being made now, that are also work for ticks. Be sure to follow any instructions on the labels of these, particularly regarding children.

Contact poisoning may result in a variety of symptoms depending upon the amount of exposure to the plant, the presence or absence of allergic sensitivity, and the body part exposed. These symptoms may include:

• Redness and swelling of exposed area

• Headache

• Burning sensation on exposed area

• Rash (immediate or delayed for up to 72 hours)

• Itching

• Blistering

Vomiting or diarrhea may occur if the poisonous portion of the plant has been eaten. In this event, professional medical attention should be sought immediately and the following steps should be taken:

• Thoroughly wash the exposed area with soap and water or alcohol.

• Wash only the exposed area to avoid spreading the poison to other parts of the body.

• Wash the area several times using a fresh solution each time.

• Do not dress the area. Containing the moisture only makes the condition worse.

• Remove any contaminated clothing and do not re-use until laundered.

• If you are treating someone other than yourself, thoroughly wash your hands after treatment to avoid spreading the poison to yourself or others

• Seek professional medical attention depending on the severity of the symptoms.

Once again, an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. There is no cream or spray that will protect you from poisonous plants – the only effective prevention is avoidance. You know the mantra "leaves of three, let it be." That adage does not guide you from plants that disguise themselves by changing colors, growning vines, or mimicing harmless plants. Take the following precautions:

• Ask the locals about poisonous plants in the area.

• Wear appropriate clothing and footwear at all times.

• Avoid touching unfamiliar plants or allowing them to touch you.

• Avoid touching the face or genitals with unwashed hands.

• Don’t use unfamiliar plants for fuel or cooking materials.

• Stand upwind from burning brush that includes poison ivy or oak. Do not inhale the smoke or allow it to touch your skin.

Parasitic infestation of humans has reached epidemic proportions in some parts of the world, including North America. Yep – this represents a major health challenge that is often overlooked by medical professionals. There is a tendency to only treat the symptoms: chronic fatigue, skin rashes, muscle and joint pain, weakened immune system, forgetfulness, food allergies, colitis, water retention and many others, without considering that parasites may be the root cause of health problems.

Parasites use humans as their hosts, enjoying the nutrients we provide and leaving us with their waste products in return.

There are three particulary common types of parasites in America. The first being a species of hookworm, aptly named Necator Americanus or American Murderer. These ugly creatures attach themselves to the intestinal walls feasting on the hosts tissue and blood, causing iron deficiency anemia.

Tapeworms are huge parasites that may be more than 30 feet long and are capable of producing a million plus eggs a day. Tapeworms consume so much food that the host may actually be hungry all the time, yet may appear obese because of tapeworm-induced water retention.

Pinworms are extremely common intestinal parasites – difficult to avoid as their eggs are often airborne. Once pinworms are snugly ensconced inside their human host, they crawl outside the anus at night, causing severe itching, and then lay their eggs on bedding or sleep wear. 

One thing to remember about parasites: Although most of them lack a brain as we know it, they are highly developed survival machines. They focus all their energies on eating and reproducing. Getting rid of them is difficult. 

Whereas some parasites are harmful to us, others actually perform a service. One example is the relatively harmless tooth amoeba. Undaunted by toothpaste and the toothbrush, they feast on microscopic bits of food or other organic material.

Another “service parasite” is the dust mite. Although they can cause allergies, dust mites operate as a sort of clean up crew for our skin. They march about on our skin and scalps all day, scarfing up dead skin cells. They coexist with Demodex Folliculorum, the rather ordinary eyebrow mite, which lives in human hair.

 Combine the invisible guests such as worms and bacteria with visible ones like fleas, ticks, mosquitoes, lice and flies -- all of whom feed on human blood or tissue -- and it's easy to get a little paranoid about being host to an army of parasites.

What to do if you suspect that you suffer from an infestation of harmful parasites? (Remember, experts say that more than 85 per cent of us are.) The first thing to remember is; don't panic and run out to buy a bagful of remedies that may be useless. Removing parasites takes time and patience. There are a number of books available that provide useful information that will help you and your health care provider make wise decisions. Check out The Essentials of Medical Parasitology by Thomas J. Brooks. Animals Parasitic in Man by Geoffrey Lapage. Medical Parasitology by Markell and Voge, and just for fun, consider Furtive Fauna by Roger Knutson. On the Web , search for writings by Dr. Ross Anderson, N.D., Dr. Peter Wina, Dr. Frank Nova, and Dr. Hazel Parcels.

One additional way you can keep parasites away is to strengthen your own immune system. Eliminate sugar, saturated fat, junk food, white flour, yeast, alcohol, tobacco and caffeine. Avoid eating meat that is not well done. Educate yourself about proper food handling and storage practices. Drink plenty of pure water and consider a moderate exercise program.

Use an antibacterial soap when washing your hands. Clean surfaces in your home with a mixture of 1/4 cup liquid laundry detergent (not dishwashing detergent) and 4 tablespoons chlorine bleach per gallon of water. Use rubber gloves and keep the area well ventilated.

Red touches yellow, kill a fellow
Red touches black, venom lack.

Another mnemonic is to think of a traffic light. If red is adjacent to yellow, stop!

In all of Western Europe and most other developed countries you can drink safely from any public water supply. In many (but not all) developing countries, the water supply contains bacteria that causes diarrhea. Water to be used for drinking, cooking, making any prepared drink (including the ice cube in the drink), or brushing the teeth should be properly disinfected. While hardened travelers may adjust to impure water over weeks or months, most travelers avoid problems by buying most or all of their water.

When disinfection is necessary, examine the physical condition of the water. Disinfectants are less effective in cloudy water. Murky or colored water should be filtered through clean cloths or allowed to settle before drawing off the clean water for disinfection. Water prepared for disinfection should be stored in clean, tightly covered containers that will not corrode.

The Bad Stuff:

• Parasites (tiny worms and other such nasty creatures) ranging in size from 2 to 15 microns. Parasites include Protozoans such as Cryptosporidium, which causes diarrhea. All parasites can be eliminated by micro filtering the water.
   

• Bacteria (smaller than parasites but larger than viruses) include E. Coli, dysentery, cholera and typhoid. The E Coli bacteria are what cause 40% of travelers' diarrhea. All bacteria are killed by boiling, iodine or chlorine treatments. The filter size for bacteria should be 0.2 microns.
   

• Viruses (micro organisms that include hepatitis, polio and meningitis). Viruses invade and then multiply within your cells - making them difficult to treat. These are the most problematic when treating water. Viruses can be killed by boiling, iodine, or chlorine treatments in the water but the best defense is to get the correct vaccinations before you begin traveling.

Disinfecting Methods

There are three primary methods by which small quantities of water can be effectively disinfected: boiling, chemical treatment, and filtration. Of the chemical treatments, chlorine is generally more effective than iodine and both disinfectants work much better in warmer water. Chlorine and iodine are generally effective in protecting against some, but not all parasites. These chemical methods therefore should only be used to treat well water (as opposed to surface water sources such as rivers, lakes, and springs). Well water is less likely to contain some of the harmful parasites.

1. Vigorous boiling for one minute will kill any disease-causing micro organisms present in water including parasitic cysts, bacteria and viruses. Note that at altitudes above one mile, water must be boiled for three minutes. The problem with this method is the time and energy source required since fuel, both heavy and bulky, is sometimes difficult to obtain in a post-disaster situation.
   
   Boiled water will have a flat taste which can be improved by aeration (i.e. pouring it back and forth from one container to another) or by allowing it to stand for a few hours, or by adding a small pinch of salt for each quart of water boiled.
    

2. Iodine is easy and effective in 20 minutes. Iodine does not neutralize cryptosporidium (a diarrhea causing protozoan). The two most popular iodine treatments in the U.S. are Potable Aqua and Polar Pure. When purifying cold water (32° F- 41° F), iodine takes longer to purify because the chemical reaction is slower. Iodine should not be used for extended periods of time, meaning several months.  It also should not be used by pregnant women or anyone with a thyroid condition.
   
   One form of iodine is tincture of Iodine. This is the common household iodine found in a medicine cabinet or first aid kit. Using an eye dropper, add five drops of 2 percent United States Pharmacopeia (U.S.P.) tincture of iodine to each quart of clear water. For cloudy water add ten drops and let the solution stand for at least 30 minutes. If dining in a foreign restaurant you may add two or three drops per glass of water, stir, and wait a few minutes. This is unscientific but seems to work.
   
   A second form of iodine is the iodine tablet. Commercially prepared iodine tablets containing the necessary dosage for drinking water disinfection can be purchased at drug and sporting goods stores. They should be used as directed. If directions are not available, use one tablet for each quart of water to be purified.
    

3. Silver is another form of water disinfectant and is available in tablet form. These tablets are expensive, running about $20 for a packet of forty tablets which purifies forty liters. However, silver is an alternative for those who don't want to, or can't use iodine.
    

4. Filtering cleans water mechanically. Filters will remove parasites and bacteria, but even the finest filters will not filter out all viruses so they should be used in conjunction with chemical treatments. In the process of cleaning the water, they can become blocked so it is important to clean the filter regularly. Make sure you know how to do this before you leave home. In the long run you will save money by filtering, instead of buying water. Filters vary in their effectiveness, and no type clears all viruses. If you decide to use a filter, look for two things: a pore size of 0.2 microns, and an assurance that the product has passed EPA testing.
    

5. Chlorine tablet or drops kill bacteria and viruses, but the wait time is 30 minutes for bacteria and four hours for parasites. Chlorine (available in several forms) should be used as a last resort. It is less stable than iodine and has some associated cancer risks. Chlorine tablets containing the necessary dosage for drinking water disinfection can be purchased from drug and sporting goods stores and should be used as directed. If directions are not available, use one tablet for each quart of water to be purified.
   
   Common household bleach will also disinfect water. Use as directed on the label. If directions are not written on the label, look for the percentage of available chlorine listed and use the information in the following tabulation as a guide. (If strength is unknown, add ten drops per quart of water. Double amount of chlorine for cloudy or colored water or water that is extremely cold.)

   Available Chlorine	Drops per Quart of Clear Water
   1%	10
   4-6%	2
   7-10%	1

   The treated water should be mixed thoroughly and allowed to stand, preferably covered, for 30 minutes. The water should have a slight chlorine odor; if not, repeat the dosage and allow the water to stand for an additional 15 minutes. If the treated water has too strong a chlorine taste, it can be minimized by allowing the water to stand exposed to the air for a few hours or by aeration (pouring it from one clean container to another several times).

   Granular calcium hypochlorite is a two-step disinfecting process. First, add and dissolve one heaping teaspoon of high-test granular calcium hypochlorite (approximately 1/4 ounce) for each two gallons of water. This creates a chlorine solution. Then, add the chlorine solution in the ratio of one part of chlorine solution to each 100 parts of water to be treated. This is roughly equal to adding 16 ounces of stock chlorine to each 12.5 gallons of water to be disinfected. To remove any objectionable chlorine odor, aerate the water as described above.

6. An ultraviolet light purifier bombards water with UV rays, neutralizing bacteria, protozoa, and viruses (which are a particular problem in developing countries). It works in less than a minute and doesn't leave a chemical aftertaste. Caution: This handheld device works best in relatively clear water (strain with a bandana first if it is not) and requires batteries.

Summary of Methods

Boiling is an excellent, yet somewhat impractical method requiring considerable time and fuel. Iodine is extremely effective but cannot be used by everyone. Silver is excellent but expensive. Chlorine is less effective and produces a bad flavor. A good filter is fast and produces good tasting water but is not as effective as iodine or boiling. These are difficult choices but all things considered, we would choose the filter/iodine combination. We feel this combination provides the safest, best flavored water in a reasonable amount of time, and at the most affordable price.

The next time your lips feel dry or chapped, drink several glasses of water and see what happens. Your lips, as semi-mucous-membranes, provide excellent representation of the hydrating effect. Internally, this is how our cells, tissues, and organs also react to proper hydration.

Remember that thirst is an unreliable indicator of dehydration. Although a sip of liquid might quench your thirst it will not improve your internal water deficit. You may not even notice your thirst depending on your circumstances and stress level.  A better barometer is your urine color. If it's always very yellow, you're probably a couple of quarts low on water. A general rule to live by for good health is this: drink enough water to ensure at least two almost clear eliminations per day.

To conserve fluid, breathe through your nose and stop talking. Stay in the shade and avoid unnecessary exertion. Don't eat - digestion requires water. Don not drink seawater, urine, alcohol, or caffeine (diuretics take more moisture than they give).

Basic symptoms of dehydration are: disorientation, low blood pressure, kidney failure, and ultimately, death. Losing even 5% of your body weight through dehydration will prompt the symptoms of severe dehydration: waves of nausea will begin, your movements will slow down dramatically, your speech will slur, and you'll become unable to walk. Dehydration to this degree can be fatal. As a final note, in cold temperatures a sip of whiskey or hot beverage may seem like a good idea but remember that both alcoholic and caffeinated beverages (including cocoa, tea, and coffee) have an extremely dehydrating effect on the body.

The maintenance of proper internal body temperature is the most important factor in determining your survival. Even in extreme cold or heat, the core temperature will seldom vary more than two degrees either side of 98.4°F (36.8°C), with the shell just a few degrees cooler. If your core temperature rises above 109°F (42.7°C) or falls below 84°F (28.8°C), it’s “check out time” for you. Your body generates both energy and heat as it burns fuel. When you start to shiver, your body is telling you that it is losing heat faster than it is being replaced. The shivering reflex works your muscles and increases heat production by burning more fuel. If your core temperature continues to drop however, shivering will not be enough to keep you warm and the situation could be fatal.

The body has a thermostat, located in a bit of nerve tissue at the base of the brain. This controls the production or dissipation of heat and monitors all parts of the body in order to maintain a constant temperature. In the state of hypothermia, the body thermostat responds by ordering heat to be drawn from the extremities into the core. Your hands and feet will start to stiffen. As the core temperature drops, the body also draws heat from the head. When this happens, circulation slows down, and the victim doesn’t get the oxygen or sugar the brain needs: the sugar the brain ordinarily feeds on is being burned to produce heat. As the brain begins to slow down, the body stops shivering, and irrational behavior begins. That is a definite danger sign, but it is hard to recognize in yourself because you will simply lose the will to help yourself. You stop shivering and you stop worrying – in fact, you are dying and couldn’t care less! At this point, your body loses its ability to reheat itself. Even if you have a sleeping bag to crawl into, you will continue to cool off. Your pulse gets irregular; drowsiness becomes semi-consciousness, which then turns into unconsciousness. The only hope at that point is the exposure to heat from an external source – a fire, hot drinks, another body. In fact, one of the most effective ways of rewarming a hypothermia victim is to zip them up in a sleeping bag with another person whose body temperature is still normal. Fortunately, in many desperate situations, a warm body would probably be a lot easier to find than a fire or a hot drink. Who knew a lovely cuddle could save a life?

It is important to properly determined the severity of any burn.  First-degree burns affect only the skin's surface and tend to appear red. Sunburns are usually first-degree burns. Although first-degree burns can cause great pain, they seldom result in lasting problems or require medical attention.

Second-degree burns probe deeper into the skin and result in blistering or splitting of the skin's layers. Very severe sunburns and scalding are common instances of second-degree burns. Like first-degree burns, second-degree burns rarely cause lasting problems or scarring. The pain can be intense, but usually subsides in 24 hours. For an adult, these burns can usually be treated at home providing the burn is no larger than the size of the patient's hand.

Third-degree burns destroy all layers of the skin and extend into deeper tissues. These burns are actually painless because the nerve endings have been destroyed. Third-degree burns result in scarring, infection, and fluid loss, and should be seen by a doctor immediately. Skin grafts are often needed to repair these deep burns.

Contrary to popular belief, you should NOT apply any ointments, antiseptics, sprays or home remedies (such as butter, oil, honey, potato peelings, milk, mustard, yoghurt, or toothpaste) to a new burn. For proper treatments, follow these steps:

• Immediately cool the area with cold water or a cold compress (not a frozen compress which can cause frostbite). If pain subsists, use a pain reliever such as aspirin, ibuprofen (Advil), or acetaminophen (Tylenol).
   
• Wait 24 hours after the burn before washing your injury gently with soap and water or a mild Betadine solution once a day.
   
• If the skin is red but blister-free, loosely cover the area with sterile gauze (or a clean bandana) to slow the skin's loss of moisture. If the skin is blistered or blackened, fighting infection is key; after washing the burn, swab with antibiotic ointment and then bandage it with gauze.
   
• Two or three days after you burn, break off a fresh piece of aloe and use the plant's natural healing moisture, or squeeze on an over-the-counter aloe cream. Avoid aloe cream that contains alcohol, which will sting and dry the skin.
   
• Once the skin has begun to heal and after it has scabbed over, vitamin E can be used to help prevent scarring. Blisters are nature's own best bandage, so leave them alone. If a blister pops, clean the area with soap and water, then smooth on a little antibiotic ointment and cover.

Prevention:

• Wear a facemask or apply a skin-protection sunscreen to exposed skin.
• Don't constrict blood flow by cinching cuffs too tightly, wearing elastic bands around the wrists or ankles, or hiking in snug boots.
• Drink plenty of water; staying well hydrated helps circulation.
• Regularly inspect your partner's face and ears for white spots, and vice versa.
• Carry chemical heat packs for fast warmth.
• Pain and subsequent numbness are the first signs of frostnip; stop and get warm before it becomes more serious.

Treat it:

• Never rub or massage frozen extremities. Rough treatment of embedded ice crystals can injure the skin even more.
• Do not warm frozen parts close to a fire or directly against chemical heat packs; numb skin cannot detect excessive heat.
• Sip warm liquids, but skip caffeine and alcohol, which slow the body's ability to warm itself.

Frostnip:

• Thaw by placing the affected area against warm skin (under your arms; on your partner's belly).

Frostbite:

• Get to a hospital. If a quick evacuation isn't an option, keep moving, even on frozen feet, if it means getting to medical care faster.
• Don't thaw frostbitten areas if there's any chance they will refreeze, which can cause further damage.
• If there's no danger of refreezing, immerse the injured area in warm water (100 to 105 F or hot-tub temperature) for 20 to 30 minutes; keep the limb moving underwater to stimulate circulation.
• Take painkillers; thawing frostbite is extremely painful.
• Once warmed, frostbitten areas usually swell up and develop blisters. Wash and cover the injured area to prevent infection until medical help can be obtained.